Features
Eugenio Barba’s Living Archive & Floating Islands – II
“A living memory is a living library, a living museum: a place of metamorphosis.
The past as proof of the impossible that has become possible. ” Eugenio Barba
by Laleen Jayamanne
(First part of this article appeared in The Island of 28 June 2023)
Formation of Odin Teater, 1964
Back in Norway, in 1964, Barba tried to enter the drama school to study directing but when rejected, along with several actors, together, they formed a small theatre group called Odin Teatret, and began to rehearse a play immediately. During this work, the group received an invitation from Denmark to do theatre there. The Mayor of a small rural township, called Holstebro, invited them to come and live there and do theatre for the community. They were offered a regular salary and a farm, with an old cowshed, to convert it as they wished, to a theatre work-shop space. Such were the strange beginnings of what became the world-renowned institution, the Nordisk Theatre Laboratorium and Odin Teatret of Denmark, turning the provincial town of Holstebro into a unique community, making global theatrical history.
A Third Theatre
In 1976, in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, Barba delivered a short keynote address, titled Third Theatre, at the Belgrade International Theatre Festival, on a UNESCO platform. The Third Theatre speech was quickly adopted as a manifesto by a broad base of theatre groups, especially in Latin America, and enabled networking across countries with a common vision. It was also in Belgrade, in 1961, that Marshal Tito launched the famous ‘Non-Aligned Movement’ of the recently de-colonised Asian and African countries. Lanka and India also participated in this event which had the high ideal of not taking sides in the emerging Cold War launched by the US and the Soviet Union. It’s, therefore, reasonable to think that the choice of Belgrade for this theatre event was not entirely coincidental, given that the idea of Third Theatre explicitly addressed theatre folk who lived in, what was then called, the ‘Third World’, a term referring to the newly independent nations. Barba has also reminded us that the French Revolution created the ‘Third Estate,’ the free press. So the idea of ‘thirdness’ was conceptually rich with new potentials. This is the historical origin of what Barba now calls Floating Islands, the numerous nameless theatres of the world.
The idea of the Third Theatre has been the subject of many scholarly debates and writings, some of it a bit arid, scholastic. But, to put it simply, according to Barba, the First Theatre is the institutionalised professional theatre, with its permanent buildings and infrastructure, contracted trained actors and a business model of providing the performance of canonical and new plays on a regular basis. The Second Theatre is what came to be known as Experimental Theatre that came out of the European avant-garde movements of the 20th Century, starting with the Soviet experiments. Many Drama Schools in America have Experimental Theatre Wings which teach students techniques derived from these traditions and newly devised ones, too.
Now, Third Theatre is neither of these and springs up like mushrooms, says Barba, when there is a felt need, an urgency and desire to present a performance to whoever might want to watch it, even on a street corner. They are done by people for whom doing theatre is what is essential for them and they stay together with a group for this very reason. Often, it’s not possible to make a living doing this, so they do paid work and make theatre in their free time. Some train all day, creating a practice and perform, if they have some means of living, without full time work.
This is a very open, quite precarious idea of a way of living which is almost unthinkable, without theatre. I think that the robust ’60s theatre in Lanka was done by people (mostly middle or lower-middle-class), who may be called amateurs, lovers of theatre, not Third Theatre. Perhaps Gamini Hattotuwegama’s Street Theatre group was a Third Theatre.
The International School of Theatre Anthropology (ISTA)
The only other book of Barba and Savarese I want to mention here is their best-selling, The Dictionary of Theatre Anthropology: The Secret Art of the Performer, which has now gone into several editions. This and Five Continents are, I think, indispensable texts if one wants to be educated about global theatre history and theory in what they call EURASIA in the long Twentieth Century. In their theatre history, they prefer to use the concept of ‘Eurasia,’ rather than the usual simplistic categories of ‘East and West’. In this way they focus on the exchanges that have occurred between geographical zones for well over a century. This Eurasian history will become more popular and intelligible to the many nations of the emerging multi-polar world, working against the US-led unipolar capitalist world dominant after 1989 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
The idea of the International School of Theatre Anthropology was launched in 1980 in Bonn, Germany. Barba had invited some of the great masters of classical Asian dance-drama to set up exchanges and demonstration of their techniques and practices.
He had also invited a group of Italian historians of theatre to document the proceedings and some of them have stayed on and worked with Barba over the decades. The Italian scholarly community, dedicated to the study of theatre in Universities, seems to be very robust. ISTA gathers regularly to carry out workshops and performances. In the early days, Masters of Japanese Noh Theatre, Balinese dancers, and an Indian Odissi dancer, were invited. Together they have created ambitious theatrical events, such as Ur Hamlet (a proto-Hamlet text), on the grounds of the infamous haunted Elsinor Castle in Denmark, the site for Shakespeare’s play. The different Asiatic classical performances were integrated as part of the open-air spectacle.
The main pedagogic aim of ISTA was to explore how the actor’s body was prepared, strengthened and trained in a precise way, from a very young age, in the great classical theatrical dance forms. Barba discovered that there were a series of, what he named, ‘pre-expressive forms’ of actions that all performers worked on, common to all Eurasian actors. This basic unity of purpose was possible because of the nature of the human anatomy and the nervous system. They developed a series of exercises that could be repeated, internalised and transmitted as the preparatory training for all actors, that they could then build on to develop their unique, idiosyncratic styles.
The dancer-actor I followed at Odin was the late Sanjukta Panigrahi, an Odissi dancer, because she also appears in Kumar Shahani’s film Bhavantharan (1992), a tribute to her guru Kelucharan Mohapatra. She has spoken of her sense of disorientation on encountering a different set of demands and techniques at Barba’s workshops. She, who trained also with Rukmini Devi, the pioneer of Bharathanatyam, at the tender age of 10, took up the challenge to not only demonstrate her exercises but also to participate in Barba’s performances. She said how difficult it was to learn to move differently, to unlearn, so to speak, routines memorised from early childhood.
The Odin actors rarely perform pre-existing plays, instead, they develop their own theatre pieces through a very long process of training and composition of the body, materials, ideas, language, music, song, anecdotes, stories and so on.
Recently, they did a spectacular show at a Theatre Olympics in Budapest, Hungary, called Resurrection (2023), and a performance in Paris called Thebes in the Time of Yellow Fever (2022), with Oedipus Rex in mind but also the painter Van Gogh who explored colour, yellow especially. The floor was layered with reproductions of Van Gogh’s yellow flower paintings. While the title recalls Oedipus Rex and the plague in Thebes as punishment for the crime of incest, Thebes in the Time of Yellow Fever was done at the end of the Covid-19, which plagued the world and appears to be also about creativity under duress. So, their work seems to be made of images, rather than plots, both very free and imaginative and also very rigorously composed. Images of these productions are again on YouTube and also on the Barba-Odin Teatret website, for anyone curious to see them.
Banishment, 2022
In December 2022, Barba was forced to resign from the Danish Theatre Laboratorium he established in 1964. At that time his Odin Teatret legally separated itself from the Nordisk Theatre Laboratorium which was the umbrella institution. Over nearly six decades they had built there a theatre and rehearsal spaces, a research library, a printing press and much else, but the new neoliberal management was impatient and wanted to make saleable shows with quick turn over. Barba’s work and life, thanks to the State subsidy, were built in resistance to this logic of capitalist consumer culture.
He was refused a small sum of money required to publish the third issue of the Journal of Theatre Anthropology, which again is on the website for free. Essential reading for those interested in Barba’s theatre, it is multilingual, in French, Italian, Spanish and English. He was also refused money to continue the annual summer festival of international theatre groups, performing for the Holstebro Township, whose identity now is integrally linked with the Odin Teatret. Their Festuge, a thematic global theatre Festival mounted every three years, is of considerable magnitude drawing in the entire community; schools, churches, the police, hospitals, nursing home, the library, the beach, etc. There is a superb film of this, as well. I am not sure if Barba could mount a festival of such scale without the support of the Nordisk Theatre Laboratorium. One festival was dedicated to theatre done by children’s theatre groups of the world. However, Barba continues to live in Holstebro, which is where his home is.
There is a set of 10 lecture demonstrations for free online, outlining key concepts of Theatre Anthropology and methods of training in different classical Asian theatre cultures. The way a South Indian father trains his little son is a marvellous lesson in how repetition works in mastering the ragas, tuning the ear. Seated cross-legged on the floor, the little boy’s utter focus and effort and the father’s immense patience and care, accompanying him with the harmonium, is moving and at times made me laugh. It was funny in the way small children’s earnest, massive effort to imitate adults are funny. But it’s the sense of rigorous training and utter dedication to a craft that shines through.
Resurrection, 2023
While being brutally pushed out from the theatre institution Barba and his band of theatre folk have created over a lifetime was undoubtedly traumatic for all, it must have been especially hard on Barba at 85. But Italy rose up with open arms to receive her illustrious son and Barba landed running, doing performances, lectures, workshops and promoting of other artists and human rights groups, through their Barba/Varley Foundation in Rome. He is rehearsing two new plays, as well.
Odin had bought a plot of land in the Holstebro cemetery for their theatre folk who wish to be buried there. Exiting stage left, Barba says lightly, ‘No one can chase us from there!’But I still hear the German Jewish writer Walter Benjamin saying (just before committing suicide on the Spanish border, fleeing the Nazis), ‘not even the dead will be safe any longer’. Alas! Lankans who suffered the 25-year civil war know this to be still true. (Concluded)
(Here’s the link to Eugenio Barba’s Course on Theatre Anthropology, in 10 Lessons: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLK8iTIUPsd3jHl8NZFDsW7tEDHuMPbRZt)
by Dr Gotabhya Ranasinghe
Senior Consultant Cardiologist
National Hospital Sri Lanka
When we sought a meeting with Hon Dr. Ramesh Pathirana, Minister of Health, he graciously cleared his busy schedule to accommodate us. Renowned for his attentive listening and deep understanding, Minister Pathirana is dedicated to advancing the health sector. His openness and transparency exemplify the qualities of an exemplary politician and minister.
Dr. Palitha Mahipala, the current Health Secretary, demonstrates both commendable enthusiasm and unwavering support. This combination of attributes makes him a highly compatible colleague for the esteemed Minister of Health.
Our discussion centered on a project that has been in the works for the past 30 years, one that no other minister had managed to advance.
Minister Pathirana, however, recognized the project’s significance and its potential to revolutionize care for heart patients.
The project involves the construction of a state-of-the-art facility at the premises of the National Hospital Colombo. The project’s location within the premises of the National Hospital underscores its importance and relevance to the healthcare infrastructure of the nation.
This facility will include a cardiology building and a tertiary care center, equipped with the latest technology to handle and treat all types of heart-related conditions and surgeries.
Securing funding was a major milestone for this initiative. Minister Pathirana successfully obtained approval for a $40 billion loan from the Asian Development Bank. With the funding in place, the foundation stone is scheduled to be laid in September this year, and construction will begin in January 2025.
This project guarantees a consistent and uninterrupted supply of stents and related medications for heart patients. As a result, patients will have timely access to essential medical supplies during their treatment and recovery. By securing these critical resources, the project aims to enhance patient outcomes, minimize treatment delays, and maintain the highest standards of cardiac care.
Upon its fruition, this monumental building will serve as a beacon of hope and healing, symbolizing the unwavering dedication to improving patient outcomes and fostering a healthier society.We anticipate a future marked by significant progress and positive outcomes in Sri Lanka’s cardiovascular treatment landscape within the foreseeable timeframe.
by Fr. Emmanuel Fernando, OMI
Jesuit Fr. Aloysius Pieris (affectionately called Fr. Aloy) celebrated his 90th birthday on April 9, 2024 and I, as the editor of our Oblate Journal, THE MISSIONARY OBLATE had gone to press by that time. Immediately I decided to publish an article, appreciating the untiring selfless services he continues to offer for inter-Faith dialogue, the renewal of the Catholic Church, his concern for the poor and the suffering Sri Lankan masses and to me, the present writer.
It was in 1988, when I was appointed Director of the Oblate Scholastics at Ampitiya by the then Oblate Provincial Fr. Anselm Silva, that I came to know Fr. Aloy more closely. Knowing well his expertise in matters spiritual, theological, Indological and pastoral, and with the collaborative spirit of my companion-formators, our Oblate Scholastics were sent to Tulana, the Research and Encounter Centre, Kelaniya, of which he is the Founder-Director, for ‘exposure-programmes’ on matters spiritual, biblical, theological and pastoral. Some of these dimensions according to my view and that of my companion-formators, were not available at the National Seminary, Ampitiya.
Ever since that time, our Oblate formators/ accompaniers at the Oblate Scholasticate, Ampitiya , have continued to send our Oblate Scholastics to Tulana Centre for deepening their insights and convictions regarding matters needed to serve the people in today’s context. Fr. Aloy also had tried very enthusiastically with the Oblate team headed by Frs. Oswald Firth and Clement Waidyasekara to begin a Theologate, directed by the Religious Congregations in Sri Lanka, for the contextual formation/ accompaniment of their members. It should very well be a desired goal of the Leaders / Provincials of the Religious Congregations.
Besides being a formator/accompanier at the Oblate Scholasticate, I was entrusted also with the task of editing and publishing our Oblate journal, ‘The Missionary Oblate’. To maintain the quality of the journal I continue to depend on Fr. Aloy for his thought-provoking and stimulating articles on Biblical Spirituality, Biblical Theology and Ecclesiology. I am very grateful to him for his generous assistance. Of late, his writings on renewal of the Church, initiated by Pope St. John XX111 and continued by Pope Francis through the Synodal path, published in our Oblate journal, enable our readers to focus their attention also on the needed renewal in the Catholic Church in Sri Lanka. Fr. Aloy appreciated very much the Synodal path adopted by the Jesuit Pope Francis for the renewal of the Church, rooted very much on prayerful discernment. In my Religious and presbyteral life, Fr.Aloy continues to be my spiritual animator / guide and ongoing formator / acccompanier.
Fr. Aloysius Pieris, BA Hons (Lond), LPh (SHC, India), STL (PFT, Naples), PhD (SLU/VC), ThD (Tilburg), D.Ltt (KU), has been one of the eminent Asian theologians well recognized internationally and one who has lectured and held visiting chairs in many universities both in the West and in the East. Many members of Religious Congregations from Asian countries have benefited from his lectures and guidance in the East Asian Pastoral Institute (EAPI) in Manila, Philippines. He had been a Theologian consulted by the Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences for many years. During his professorship at the Gregorian University in Rome, he was called to be a member of a special group of advisers on other religions consulted by Pope Paul VI.
Fr. Aloy is the author of more than 30 books and well over 500 Research Papers. Some of his books and articles have been translated and published in several countries. Among those books, one can find the following: 1) The Genesis of an Asian Theology of Liberation (An Autobiographical Excursus on the Art of Theologising in Asia, 2) An Asian Theology of Liberation, 3) Providential Timeliness of Vatican 11 (a long-overdue halt to a scandalous millennium, 4) Give Vatican 11 a chance, 5) Leadership in the Church, 6) Relishing our faith in working for justice (Themes for study and discussion), 7) A Message meant mainly, not exclusively for Jesuits (Background information necessary for helping Francis renew the Church), 8) Lent in Lanka (Reflections and Resolutions, 9) Love meets wisdom (A Christian Experience of Buddhism, 10) Fire and Water 11) God’s Reign for God’s poor, 12) Our Unhiddden Agenda (How we Jesuits work, pray and form our men). He is also the Editor of two journals, Vagdevi, Journal of Religious Reflection and Dialogue, New Series.
Fr. Aloy has a BA in Pali and Sanskrit from the University of London and a Ph.D in Buddhist Philosophy from the University of Sri Lankan, Vidyodaya Campus. On Nov. 23, 2019, he was awarded the prestigious honorary Doctorate of Literature (D.Litt) by the Chancellor of the University of Kelaniya, the Most Venerable Welamitiyawe Dharmakirthi Sri Kusala Dhamma Thera.
Fr. Aloy continues to be a promoter of Gospel values and virtues. Justice as a constitutive dimension of love and social concern for the downtrodden masses are very much noted in his life and work. He had very much appreciated the commitment of the late Fr. Joseph (Joe) Fernando, the National Director of the Social and Economic Centre (SEDEC) for the poor.
In Sri Lanka, a few religious Congregations – the Good Shepherd Sisters, the Christian Brothers, the Marist Brothers and the Oblates – have invited him to animate their members especially during their Provincial Congresses, Chapters and International Conferences. The mainline Christian Churches also have sought his advice and followed his seminars. I, for one, regret very much, that the Sri Lankan authorities of the Catholic Church –today’s Hierarchy—- have not sought Fr.
Aloy’s expertise for the renewal of the Catholic Church in Sri Lanka and thus have not benefited from the immense store of wisdom and insight that he can offer to our local Church while the Sri Lankan bishops who governed the Catholic church in the immediate aftermath of the Second Vatican Council (Edmund Fernando OMI, Anthony de Saram, Leo Nanayakkara OSB, Frank Marcus Fernando, Paul Perera,) visited him and consulted him on many matters. Among the Tamil Bishops, Bishop Rayappu Joseph was keeping close contact with him and Bishop J. Deogupillai hosted him and his team visiting him after the horrible Black July massacre of Tamils.
Sri Lanka-Singapore Free Trade Agreement
By Gomi Senadhira
senadhiragomi@gmail.com
“You might tell fairy tales, but the progress of a country cannot be achieved through such narratives. A country cannot be developed by making false promises. The country moved backward because of the electoral promises made by political parties throughout time. We have witnessed that the ultimate result of this is the country becoming bankrupt. Unfortunately, many segments of the population have not come to realize this yet.” – President Ranil Wickremesinghe, 2024 Budget speech
Any Sri Lankan would agree with the above words of President Wickremesinghe on the false promises our politicians and officials make and the fairy tales they narrate which bankrupted this country. So, to understand this, let’s look at one such fairy tale with lots of false promises; Ranil Wickremesinghe’s greatest achievement in the area of international trade and investment promotion during the Yahapalana period, Sri Lanka-Singapore Free Trade Agreement (SLSFTA).
It is appropriate and timely to do it now as Finance Minister Wickremesinghe has just presented to parliament a bill on the National Policy on Economic Transformation which includes the establishment of an Office for International Trade and the Sri Lanka Institute of Economics and International Trade.
Was SLSFTA a “Cleverly negotiated Free Trade Agreement” as stated by the (former) Minister of Development Strategies and International Trade Malik Samarawickrama during the Parliamentary Debate on the SLSFTA in July 2018, or a colossal blunder covered up with lies, false promises, and fairy tales? After SLSFTA was signed there were a number of fairy tales published on this agreement by the Ministry of Development Strategies and International, Institute of Policy Studies, and others.
However, for this article, I would like to limit my comments to the speech by Minister Samarawickrama during the Parliamentary Debate, and the two most important areas in the agreement which were covered up with lies, fairy tales, and false promises, namely: revenue loss for Sri Lanka and Investment from Singapore. On the other important area, “Waste products dumping” I do not want to comment here as I have written extensively on the issue.
1. The revenue loss
During the Parliamentary Debate in July 2018, Minister Samarawickrama stated “…. let me reiterate that this FTA with Singapore has been very cleverly negotiated by us…. The liberalisation programme under this FTA has been carefully designed to have the least impact on domestic industry and revenue collection. We have included all revenue sensitive items in the negative list of items which will not be subject to removal of tariff. Therefore, 97.8% revenue from Customs duty is protected. Our tariff liberalisation will take place over a period of 12-15 years! In fact, the revenue earned through tariffs on goods imported from Singapore last year was Rs. 35 billion.
The revenue loss for over the next 15 years due to the FTA is only Rs. 733 million– which when annualised, on average, is just Rs. 51 million. That is just 0.14% per year! So anyone who claims the Singapore FTA causes revenue loss to the Government cannot do basic arithmetic! Mr. Speaker, in conclusion, I call on my fellow members of this House – don’t mislead the public with baseless criticism that is not grounded in facts. Don’t look at petty politics and use these issues for your own political survival.”
I was surprised to read the minister’s speech because an article published in January 2018 in “The Straits Times“, based on information released by the Singaporean Negotiators stated, “…. With the FTA, tariff savings for Singapore exports are estimated to hit $10 million annually“.
As the annual tariff savings (that is the revenue loss for Sri Lanka) calculated by the Singaporean Negotiators, Singaporean $ 10 million (Sri Lankan rupees 1,200 million in 2018) was way above the rupees’ 733 million revenue loss for 15 years estimated by the Sri Lankan negotiators, it was clear to any observer that one of the parties to the agreement had not done the basic arithmetic!
Six years later, according to a report published by “The Morning” newspaper, speaking at the Committee on Public Finance (COPF) on 7th May 2024, Mr Samarawickrama’s chief trade negotiator K.J. Weerasinghehad had admitted “…. that forecasted revenue loss for the Government of Sri Lanka through the Singapore FTA is Rs. 450 million in 2023 and Rs. 1.3 billion in 2024.”
If these numbers are correct, as tariff liberalisation under the SLSFTA has just started, we will pass Rs 2 billion very soon. Then, the question is how Sri Lanka’s trade negotiators made such a colossal blunder. Didn’t they do their basic arithmetic? If they didn’t know how to do basic arithmetic they should have at least done their basic readings. For example, the headline of the article published in The Straits Times in January 2018 was “Singapore, Sri Lanka sign FTA, annual savings of $10m expected”.
Anyway, as Sri Lanka’s chief negotiator reiterated at the COPF meeting that “…. since 99% of the tariffs in Singapore have zero rates of duty, Sri Lanka has agreed on 80% tariff liberalisation over a period of 15 years while expecting Singapore investments to address the imbalance in trade,” let’s turn towards investment.
Investment from Singapore
In July 2018, speaking during the Parliamentary Debate on the FTA this is what Minister Malik Samarawickrama stated on investment from Singapore, “Already, thanks to this FTA, in just the past two-and-a-half months since the agreement came into effect we have received a proposal from Singapore for investment amounting to $ 14.8 billion in an oil refinery for export of petroleum products. In addition, we have proposals for a steel manufacturing plant for exports ($ 1 billion investment), flour milling plant ($ 50 million), sugar refinery ($ 200 million). This adds up to more than $ 16.05 billion in the pipeline on these projects alone.
And all of these projects will create thousands of more jobs for our people. In principle approval has already been granted by the BOI and the investors are awaiting the release of land the environmental approvals to commence the project.
I request the Opposition and those with vested interests to change their narrow-minded thinking and join us to develop our country. We must always look at what is best for the whole community, not just the few who may oppose. We owe it to our people to courageously take decisions that will change their lives for the better.”
According to the media report I quoted earlier, speaking at the Committee on Public Finance (COPF) Chief Negotiator Weerasinghe has admitted that Sri Lanka was not happy with overall Singapore investments that have come in the past few years in return for the trade liberalisation under the Singapore-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement. He has added that between 2021 and 2023 the total investment from Singapore had been around $162 million!
What happened to those projects worth $16 billion negotiated, thanks to the SLSFTA, in just the two-and-a-half months after the agreement came into effect and approved by the BOI? I do not know about the steel manufacturing plant for exports ($ 1 billion investment), flour milling plant ($ 50 million) and sugar refinery ($ 200 million).
However, story of the multibillion-dollar investment in the Petroleum Refinery unfolded in a manner that would qualify it as the best fairy tale with false promises presented by our politicians and the officials, prior to 2019 elections.
Though many Sri Lankans got to know, through the media which repeatedly highlighted a plethora of issues surrounding the project and the questionable credentials of the Singaporean investor, the construction work on the Mirrijiwela Oil Refinery along with the cement factory began on the24th of March 2019 with a bang and Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe and his ministers along with the foreign and local dignitaries laid the foundation stones.
That was few months before the 2019 Presidential elections. Inaugurating the construction work Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe said the projects will create thousands of job opportunities in the area and surrounding districts.
The oil refinery, which was to be built over 200 acres of land, with the capacity to refine 200,000 barrels of crude oil per day, was to generate US$7 billion of exports and create 1,500 direct and 3,000 indirect jobs. The construction of the refinery was to be completed in 44 months. Four years later, in August 2023 the Cabinet of Ministers approved the proposal presented by President Ranil Wickremesinghe to cancel the agreement with the investors of the refinery as the project has not been implemented! Can they explain to the country how much money was wasted to produce that fairy tale?
It is obvious that the President, ministers, and officials had made huge blunders and had deliberately misled the public and the parliament on the revenue loss and potential investment from SLSFTA with fairy tales and false promises.
As the president himself said, a country cannot be developed by making false promises or with fairy tales and these false promises and fairy tales had bankrupted the country. “Unfortunately, many segments of the population have not come to realize this yet”.
(The writer, a specialist and an activist on trade and development issues . )
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