Opinion
The Buddha on politics and governance
Buddha Dhamma does not seek to propagate any political ideology. Its primary purpose is the liberation of individuals from pervasive suffering, as enunciated in the Four Noble Truths. The Buddha saw all beings in the universe being born, living, dying and being reborn over and over again without end, all trapped in a web spun by their past actions kamma. The fundamentals of the Buddha’s teachings, based on purity, morality and faith, can be summed up by the following stanza, “Sabbapapassa akaranam, kusalassa upsammpada, sacittapariyodapanam, etam Buddhana sasanam” which means avoidance of evil, cultivation of good and purifying of one’s mind. The Buddha has preached that man’s desire is insatiable and his excessive craving is the cause of all dukkha.
In the realm of political practice, since the time of Buddha, his teachings have both influenced governments and been identified by governments as a source of their authority and legitimacy. Buddhist monarchs have ruled many Asian and Southeastern countries at various times over the past two thousand years and even today many nations in Asia believe that their governments have a duty to rule in conformity with Dhamma (truth) and its ethical values. Buddhism has remained the leading religious force and continued to exert a strong influence on political, economic, and social life in many parts of Asia, including Sri Lanka, because it is closely associated with cultural norms of these nations it cannot be isolated from politics.
Although the primary purpose of Buddha’s teachings is the liberation of individuals from pervasive suffering, his they acknowledge the interdependence of the individual with society, polity, and economy. The Buddha saw politics not as an end in itself but as an instrument by means of which favourable conditions could be created for the amelioration of the people’s suffering. He recognized that some form of government was necessary to provide social order and welfare and that it values, content and processes should be consistent with Dhamma (truth). Dhamma is the fundamental concept that should underlie any Buddhist approach to economic, social and political development. It is only when economic and social system is grounded in sound ethical principles that it conduces to real human welfare. Therefore, the Buddha saw a political system, organised and consistent with these truths, could minimise the manifest form of suffering and destitution, human beings are subject to. Basically, it seeks to approach the problems of society by reforming individuals constituting that society in conformity with Dhamma and by suggesting some general principles through which equitable sharing of resources.
Bikku Bodhi has stated that the Buddha was “a compassionate and pragmatic teacher who was intent on promoting a social order in which people can live together, peacefully, in accordance with ethical guidelines. In Buddhist philosophy and practice “each person rises above the demands of narrow self-interest and develops a sincere, large hearted concern for the welfare of others and the greater good of the whole”. While the Buddha principally aimed at guiding people towards moral and spiritual progress, he was fully aware that their capacity for moral and spiritual development depends upon the material conditions of the society in which they live. He acutely realized that when people mired in poverty and oppressed hunger and want, they would find it hard to hold to a path of moral rectitude. Thus, he saw that the provision of economic justice is integral to social harmony and political stability.
Modern democracy is based on the principle that all human beings are essentially equal and that each of us has an equal right to life, liberty and happiness. Buddhism too recognises that human beings are entitled to dignity, and all members of the human family have an equal and inalienable right to liberty. Whether we are rich or poor educated or uneducated, belonging to one nation or another, to one region or another, adhering to this ideology or that, each of us is just a human being like everyone else. Not only do we all desire happiness and seek to avoid suffering, but each of us has an equal right to pursue these goals.
The Buddha was the first political philosopher who taught the basic requirements for true democracy and peaceful coexistence of humanity. He liberated Shudras (low caste) from slavery and treated and practised equality between genders and treated women on equal footing as men bestowing on them the right to be ordained, dispelling misogynous prejudice.
Monarchy, which was the dominant form of government in Buddha’s time, was also formed voluntarily and the people elected the most righteous and capable person, which implied a democratic concept. However, the Buddha stated that the monarch was regarded worthy not because of his divine right but due to his righteousness in deeds.
The Buddha was less concerned about the form of government than its consequences. He refrained from making any pronouncement on the relative merits of the political systems or the political ideologies that existed in his time. For him whether it is monarchy, aristocracy, democracy or any combination thereof irrelevant as long as it served the people, and led to their wellbeing and benevolence. The Buddha proffered advice to many kings. The Sangha was asked to go forth as ambassadors of the Dhamma, for the greater good of the greater whole.
The Buddha discoursed to a diverse community, and in doing so pulled-down social barriers. In a drastic departure from the cultural norm, he challenged the existing dominant social structure of his time. In his society, only those born into brahmin caste were eligible to become priests. He insisted on inclusion of outcast to priesthood and challenged the entrenched systems of privilege by asserting mere circumstances of birth do not make one Brahmin. It is one’s actions and conduct that determine whether one is Brahmin or not. According to Vasala Sutta” Not by birth is one an outcast, not by birth is one a Brahmin by deed one becomes an outcast, by deed one becomes a Brahman. (Ete kho vasala vutta, maya vo ye pakasita. Na jacca vasalo hoti, na jacca hoti, brahmano, Kammana vasalohoti, kammana hoti brahmano).
Although the overriding goal of the Buddha’s teachings is the liberation of individuals from suffering, some references to the Suttas help us to gain an insight into the political power, authority and duties of a temporal ruler. The myth prevailing at the time of the Buddha was that kingship was of divine origin. But the Buddhist concept as given in Aggana Sutta (Digha Nikaya) is that kinship originated as a genuine political need of the society as opposed to Brahmin theory of divine origin.
According to this Sutta, at a certain juncture of evolution, logical need to show what Nature offered to arrest the diminishing of natural resources due to greed, to stop stealing and other vices, prompted a genuine social need for charismatic leader to arbitrate whenever such a situation arose. Hence the king was a figure chosen and approved by the People Mahasammata, a logical outcome of a social need. (Sita Arunthavanathan).
Definition of a king as given Agganna Sutta is one who makes others happy by righteousness dhammena param ranjeti ti raja). The king feels the weal and the woe of his subjects as his own (jatakamala).
The Buddha said that the moral character of a ruler determines the moral character of society. The importance of morality in politics is illustrated in Buddhist philosophical literature. In the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha stresses the importance of giving valuable moral lessons by means of a collection of fables and anecdotes (Jataka stories) through human and animal incarnations. In Khuddakanikaya jataka, the Buddha expounds the principles of an ideal ruler by setting out the obligations of a ruler in the form of (Dasa raja dhamma) as including personal integrity moral character a concern for the welfare of all beings, nonviolence and non-opposition to the will of people. In the C akkavatti sihananda sutta (Diga Nikaya) says moral character of ruler determines the moral character of society and decline in a ruler’s moral character results in society’s moral decline.
The Buddha preached non-violence and peace as a universal message. He did not approve of violence or the destruction of life. The Buddha declared “the victor breeds hatred, the defeated lives in misery. He who renounces both victory and defeat, is happy and peaceful.” He prevented the outbreak of war and diffused tension between Sakyas and Koliya who were about unleash war over the waters of Rohini. He also dissuaded King Ajasattu from attacking the Kingdom Vajjis.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar the father of the Indian Constitution and pioneer of India’s democracy, believed Buddhism to be democratic religion, which led to his conversion. He declared, “Positively, my social philosophy, may be said to be enshrined in three words; Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Let no one, however, say that I have borrowed my philosophy from the French Revolution. I have not. My philosophy has roots in religion and not in political science. I have derived them from the teachings of my master, the Buddha, in his philosophy, liberty, and equality had a place. He accorded highest place to fraternity as the only real safeguard against the denial of liberty or equality or fraternity, which was another name for brotherhood or humanity, which was again another name for religion because Buddhism is closely associated with cultural norms of these nations it cannot be isolated from politics.
The Buddha discussed the importance and the prerequisites for a good government. He showed how the country could become corrupt, degenerate and unhappy when the head of the government becomes corrupt and unjust. He spoke against corruption and how a government should act based on humanitarian principles.
The Buddha declared, “When the ruler of a country is just and good, the ministers become just and good; when the ministers are just and good, the higher officials become just and good; when the higher officials are just and good, the rank and file become just and good; when the rank and file become just and good, the people become just and good (Anguttara Nikaya).
The Chakravarty Sihananda Sutta, which gives us an insight into the Buddhist view of kingship and governance, especially how moral virtue is closely bound with socioeconomic conditions. Sutta talks about how social decline happens when a king does not rule virtuously. It says when the ruler or authorities fail to remove and prevent widespread poverty, or introduce reforms too late, the cumulative effect will be a general moral and social decline. It further states that crime such as theft, falsehood, violence, hatred, cruelty, could arise from poverty, and any attempt by Kings and governments to suppress crime through punishment or force, will prove futile.
A good ruler must possess a clear understanding of the law to be enforced. It should not be enforced just because the ruler has the authority to enforce the law. It must be done in a reasonable manner and with common sense.
In the Milinda Panha, it is stated: ‘If a man, who is unfit, incompetent, immoral, improper, unable and unworthy of kingship, has enthroned himself a king or a ruler with great authority, he is to be subject to a variety of punishment by the people, because, being unfit and unworthy, he has placed himself unrighteous in the seat of sovereignty. The ruler, like others who violate and transgress moral codes and basic rules of all social laws of mankind, is equally subject to punishment; and moreover, to be censured is the ruler who conducts himself as a robber of the public.’ In a Jataka story, it is mentioned that a ruler who punishes innocent people and does not punish the culprit is not suitable to rule a country.
The king should always improve himself and carefully examines his own conduct in deeds, words and thoughts, trying to discover and listen to public opinion as to whether or not he had been guilty of any faults and mistakes in ruling the kingdom.
If it is found that he rules unrighteous, the public will complain that they are ruined by the wicked ruler with unjust treatment, punishment, taxation, or other oppressions including corruption of any kind, and they will react against him in one way or another. On the contrary, if he rules righteously they will bless him: ‘Long live His Majesty.’ (Majjhima Nikaya).
In the Kutadanta Sutta, the Buddha suggested economic development instead of force to reduce crime. The government should use the country’s resources to improve the economic conditions of the country. It could embark on agricultural and rural development, provide financial support to entrepreneurs and business, provide adequate wages for workers to maintain a decent life with human dignity.
In sutta, Khuddakanikaya Jataka, the Buddha set out certain rules for Good Government, known as ‘Dasa Raja Dharma’. These ten rules would be relevant even today for any government which wishes to rule the country peacefully and ethically in accordance with dhamma Danaŋ sīlaŋ pariccāgaŋ ājjavaŋ maddavaŋ tapaŋ akkodaŋ avihimsañca khantiñca avi.
Dasavidha-rājadhamma consists of:
Dāna
(charity) – being prepared to sacrifice one’s own pleasure for the well-being of the public, such as giving away one’s belongings or other things to support or assist others, including giving knowledge and serving public interests.
Sīla
(morality) – practicing physical and mental morals, and being a good example of others.
Pariccāga
(altruism), being generous and avoiding selfishness, practicing altruism.
Ājjava (honesty) – being honest and sincere towards others, performing one’s duties with loyalty and sincerity to others.
Maddava
(gentleness) having gentle temperament, avoiding arrogance and never defaming others.
Tapa
(self-control) – destroying passion and performing duties without indolence.
Akkodha
(non-anger) – being free from hatred and remaining calm in the midst of confusion.
Avihimsa
(non-violence) – exercising non-violence, not being vengeful.
Khanti
(forbearance) – practicing patience, and trembling to serve public interests.
Avirodhana
(uprightness) — respecting opinions of other persons, avoiding prejudice and promoting public peace and order.
There has been a ruler who exemplified the tenfold virtue of the ruler. He was King Asoka (304-232 BCE), who ruled India for 41 years.
Initially, the King was a great warrior general, winning many battles, and continued to expand the Indian empire during the first eight years of his reign. After one particularly bloody, but victorious, campaign, the King took in the sight of the battleground, and seeing the carnage all around him, famously cried out, “What have I done?” Thereafter, he embraced Buddhism, establishing a just kingdom along Buddhist lines and was known as ‘Dhammasoka’ or “Asoka, the holder of Dhamma”. He promoted wildlife protection, banning hunting for sport, built universities, hospitals for people and animals, and constructed irrigation systems for trade and agriculture. The King also renounced the use of violence, ceasing all military campaigns against his neighbors, instead sending monks and nuns abroad to spread the Buddhist Teachings on wisdom and kindness. Indeed, a son and daughter of King Asoka’s who were monk and nun took Buddhism to Sri Lanka, where it remains the predominant faith to this day. (Wikipedia).